Z-Coin Technical Whitepaper

Abstract

Z-Coin (ZCN) is a hybrid Proof-of-Work (PoW) and Proof-of-Stake (PoS) cryptocurrency designed to create a premium digital asset ecosystem with a fixed supply cap of 10 million tokens. This whitepaper outlines the technical architecture, consensus mechanisms, token economics, and security features of the Z-Coin protocol, with particular focus on our novel approach to progressive mining difficulty and our unique Black Card staking system.

1. Introduction

Z-Coin represents a paradigm shift in cryptocurrency design, specifically created to serve high-value transactions while maintaining scarcity and value preservation over time. Unlike many cryptocurrencies that focus on mass adoption through high transaction throughput, Z-Coin prioritizes quality over quantity, establishing itself as a premium digital asset with multiple utility functions.

The key innovations of Z-Coin include:

A hybrid consensus mechanism that combines the security of Proof-of-Work with the energy efficiency of Proof-of-Stake
A Bitcoin-inspired difficulty adjustment algorithm with a predetermined halving schedule
A tiered Black Card staking system that provides real-world utility through physical and digital payment cards
An automated charitable donation mechanism that allocates 1% of all transactions to vetted charitable organizations
A fixed supply cap of 10 million tokens, with 80% allocated to public distribution

This whitepaper provides a comprehensive technical overview of these features and their implementation within the Z-Coin protocol.

2. Technical Architecture

2.1 Blockchain Specification

Z-Coin is built on the Ethereum blockchain as an ERC-20 token, leveraging the security and established infrastructure of Ethereum while implementing custom logic for our hybrid consensus mechanism and reward distribution system.

Parameter	Specification
Blockchain Base	Ethereum (ERC-20)
Contract Address	0x466138E169C424cF0B5c1281E8D29F6FA3ff5B78
Token Symbol	ZCN
Decimals	18
Total Supply	10,000,000 ZCN
Block Time	10 minutes (target)
Difficulty Adjustment	Every 2,016 blocks (~2 weeks)
Minimum Staking Amount	50 ZCN

2.2 Smart Contract Implementation

The Z-Coin protocol is implemented through a series of interconnected smart contracts, with the main contract handling token operations, mining rewards, difficulty adjustments, and staking functionality. Below are key sections of the core contract code:

Legal Disclaimer

Z-Coin is a utility token designed for transactions, governance participation, and ecosystem access. It is not an investment vehicle and does not guarantee financial returns. Z-Coin's value is driven by its use cases, and its purchase should not be interpreted as an expectation of profit. The acquisition of Z-Coin does not grant ownership, equity, or dividends in any company or organization.

The Z-Coin pre-sale offers both unstaked coins (default option with immediate utility) and optionally staked coins for those seeking premium features. This dual-option structure ensures Z-Coin maintains its classification as a utility token, not a security.

Staking Z-Coin for Black Card eligibility is a voluntary feature and is not required for participation in the ecosystem. Staking rewards are provided as a method of utility access, not as an investment return.

Users are solely responsible for reporting and complying with applicable tax regulations, including Illinois cryptocurrency tax laws. Z-Coin does not provide tax, financial, or legal advice.

// Core Z-Coin token contract
contract ZCoin is ERC20 {
    // Token parameters
    string public constant name = "Z-Coin";
    string public constant symbol = "ZCN";
    uint8 public constant decimals = 18;
    uint256 public constant TOTAL_SUPPLY = 10000000 * 10**18; // 10 million with 18 decimals

    // Mining parameters
    uint256 public blocksPerHalving = 210000;
    uint256 public initialBlockReward = 50 * 10**18; // 50 ZCN
    uint256 public currentDifficulty = 1;
    uint256 public lastDifficultyAdjustmentBlock;
    uint256 public constant TARGET_BLOCK_TIME = 10 minutes;
    uint256 public constant DIFFICULTY_ADJUSTMENT_INTERVAL = 2016; // blocks

    // Staking parameters
    uint256 public constant MINIMUM_STAKE = 50 * 10**18; // 50 ZCN
    uint256 public constant STAKING_LOCK_PERIOD = 365 days;
    uint256 public constant BASE_STAKING_REWARD_RATE = 500; // 5% annually (stored as basis points)

    // Charity parameters
    uint256 public constant CHARITY_PERCENTAGE = 100; // 1% of transactions
    address public charityWallet;

    // Mappings
    mapping(address => uint256) public stakedBalance;
    mapping(address => uint256) public stakingStartTime;
    mapping(address => uint256) public lastRewardTimestamp;
    mapping(address => uint8) public blackCardTier; // 0=none, 1=silver, 2=gold, 3=diamond

    // Events
    event Staked(address indexed user, uint256 amount);
    event Unstaked(address indexed user, uint256 amount, uint256 reward);
    event MiningReward(address indexed miner, uint256 amount);
    event DifficultyAdjusted(uint256 oldDifficulty, uint256 newDifficulty);
    event CharityDonation(address indexed from, uint256 amount);

    // Constructor
    constructor(address _charityWallet) ERC20(name, symbol) {
        charityWallet = _charityWallet;
        _mint(msg.sender, TOTAL_SUPPLY);
        lastDifficultyAdjustmentBlock = block.number;
    }

    // Core functions are implemented here...
}
                

The complete smart contract includes additional functions for mining, staking, difficulty adjustment, and charity donations, which are detailed in subsequent sections of this whitepaper.

2.3 Network Topology

Z-Coin leverages a distributed network architecture with the following components:

┌─────────────────┐     ┌───────────────────┐     ┌───────────────────┐
│                 │     │                   │     │                   │
│ Ethereum Layer  │◄────┤   Z-Coin Layer    │◄────┤ Application Layer │
│                 │     │                   │     │                   │
└─────────────────┘     └───────────────────┘     └───────────────────┘
        │                        │                         │
        │                        │                         │
        ▼                        ▼                         ▼
┌─────────────────┐     ┌───────────────────┐     ┌───────────────────┐
│                 │     │                   │     │                   │
│ Security Layer  │     │ Consensus Layer   │     │ Service Layer     │
│                 │     │                   │     │                   │
└─────────────────┘     └───────────────────┘     └───────────────────┘
                                                          │
                                                          │
                                                          ▼
                                                  ┌───────────────────┐
                                                  │                   │
                                                  │ User Interface    │
                                                  │                   │
                                                  └───────────────────┘

This layered architecture ensures separation of concerns while maintaining interoperability between system components:

Ethereum Layer: Provides the underlying blockchain infrastructure, transaction validation, and network consensus.
Z-Coin Layer: Implements the custom token logic, mining and staking mechanisms, and reward distribution.
Application Layer: Handles high-level user interactions, Black Card management, and charity features.
Security Layer: Manages access control, cryptographic operations, and security policies.
Consensus Layer: Implements the hybrid PoW/PoS mechanism and difficulty adjustment algorithms.
Service Layer: Provides APIs and services for integration with third-party applications.
User Interface: Offers web-based and mobile interfaces for user interaction with the Z-Coin ecosystem.

3. Consensus Mechanism

3.1 Hybrid PoW/PoS Model

Z-Coin implements a novel hybrid consensus model that leverages both Proof-of-Work and Proof-of-Stake mechanisms. This approach provides several advantages:

Enhanced security through dual validation mechanisms
Reduced energy consumption compared to pure PoW systems
Greater participation options for users with different resources
Protection against 51% attacks and stake concentration

In the Z-Coin consensus model, blocks are produced through the following process:

Miners compete to solve a computational puzzle (PoW)
Block proposals must be validated by a committee of stakers (PoS)
Committee selection is weighted by stake amount and duration
Block rewards are split between miners and stakers based on contribution

This hybrid approach ensures that both computational power and economic stake are required to influence the network, increasing overall security.

3.2 Mining Algorithm

Z-Coin employs a modified Ethash algorithm, designed to be ASIC-resistant in the early stages of network growth while providing efficient validation. The algorithm has been optimized for the following characteristics:

Memory-hardness to prevent ASIC dominance
Reduced energy consumption compared to standard Ethash
Verification efficiency for faster transaction confirmation
Progressive difficulty adjustment to maintain block time targets

The mining process requires solving a computational puzzle with the following properties:

H(nonce || block_header || D) ≤ target

Where:

H is the hash function (modified Ethash)
nonce is the value miners are trying to find
block_header contains transaction data and metadata
D is a dataset derived from the blockchain state
target is the difficulty target, adjusted periodically

The implementation details of the mining algorithm are provided in the smart contract through the following function:

function verifyProofOfWork(bytes32 blockHash, uint256 nonce, address miner) public view returns (bool) {
    // Create a dataset seed from block hash and miner address
    bytes32 seed = keccak256(abi.encodePacked(blockHash, miner));

    // Generate a dataset based on the seed
    bytes32[] memory dataset = generateDataset(seed);

    // Perform memory-hard computation
    bytes32 result = computeEthash(dataset, nonce);

    // Check if result meets current difficulty
    uint256 resultValue = uint256(result);
    uint256 target = (2**256 - 1) / currentDifficulty;

    return resultValue <= target;
}
                

3.3 Difficulty Adjustment Mechanism

Z-Coin implements a Bitcoin-inspired difficulty adjustment algorithm to maintain consistent block times as network hash power fluctuates. The algorithm recalibrates the mining difficulty every 2,016 blocks (approximately two weeks with 10-minute blocks) based on the actual time taken to mine those blocks.

The adjustment formula is as follows:

new_difficulty = current_difficulty × (expected_timespan ÷ actual_timespan)

Where:

expected_timespan = 2,016 blocks × 10 minutes = 20,160 minutes
actual_timespan = time taken to mine the last 2,016 blocks

To prevent extreme adjustments, actual_timespan is constrained:

If actual_timespan < expected_timespan/4, then actual_timespan = expected_timespan/4
If actual_timespan > expected_timespan×4, then actual_timespan = expected_timespan×4

This ensures that difficulty adjustments are gradual while still responsive to changes in network hash power.

function adjustDifficulty() public {
    uint256 blocksSinceLastAdjustment = block.number - lastDifficultyAdjustmentBlock;

    // Only adjust difficulty after 2016 blocks
    if (blocksSinceLastAdjustment < DIFFICULTY_ADJUSTMENT_INTERVAL) {
        return;
    }

    // Calculate timespan for the last 2016 blocks
    uint256 expectedTimespan = DIFFICULTY_ADJUSTMENT_INTERVAL * TARGET_BLOCK_TIME;
    uint256 actualTimespan = block.timestamp - lastDifficultyTimestamp;

    // Apply bounds to prevent extreme adjustments
    if (actualTimespan < expectedTimespan / 4) {
        actualTimespan = expectedTimespan / 4;
    }
    if (actualTimespan > expectedTimespan * 4) {
        actualTimespan = expectedTimespan * 4;
    }

    // Calculate new difficulty
    uint256 oldDifficulty = currentDifficulty;
    currentDifficulty = (currentDifficulty * expectedTimespan) / actualTimespan;

    // Update state variables
    lastDifficultyAdjustmentBlock = block.number;
    lastDifficultyTimestamp = block.timestamp;

    emit DifficultyAdjusted(oldDifficulty, currentDifficulty);
}
                

3.4 Staking System

Z-Coin's staking system complements the mining process by allowing token holders to lock their tokens for a specified period in exchange for rewards and privileges. Staked Z-Coins remain the full property of the user at all times and are never used for project funding, liquidity, or operational expenses. The staking mechanism has the following properties:

Minimum staking amount: 50 ZCN
Minimum staking duration: 365 days for Black Card eligibility
Early unstaking option: After 60 days if market price exceeds purchase price
Tiered reward rates based on amount staked and duration
Participation in block validation based on stake weight
Full retention of ownership rights by the user throughout the staking period

The staking reward formula is as follows:

reward = stake_amount × reward_rate × stake_time ÷ (365 days × 10000)

Where reward_rate is expressed in basis points (e.g., 500 = 5.00%).

Staking also confers governance rights, allowing stakers to vote on protocol upgrades and charity initiatives proportional to their staked amount.

function stake(uint256 amount) public {
    require(amount >= MINIMUM_STAKE, "Amount below minimum stake");
    require(balanceOf(msg.sender) >= amount, "Insufficient balance");

    // Transfer tokens to contract
    _transfer(msg.sender, address(this), amount);

    // Update staking data
    stakedBalance[msg.sender] += amount;
    stakingStartTime[msg.sender] = block.timestamp;

    // Calculate and assign black card tier
    updateBlackCardTier(msg.sender);

    emit Staked(msg.sender, amount);
}

function calculateStakingReward(address user) public view returns (uint256) {
    if (stakedBalance[user] == 0) {
        return 0;
    }

    uint256 stakingDuration = block.timestamp - stakingStartTime[user];
    uint256 rewardRate = BASE_STAKING_REWARD_RATE;

    // Apply tier bonuses
    if (blackCardTier[user] == 2) { // Gold tier
        rewardRate += 100; // +1%
    } else if (blackCardTier[user] == 3) { // Diamond tier
        rewardRate += 200; // +2%
    }

    // Calculate reward: amount * rate * duration / (365 days * 10000)
    // where rate is in basis points (100 = 1%)
    uint256 reward = (stakedBalance[user] * rewardRate * stakingDuration) / (365 days * 10000);

    return reward;
}
                

4. Token Economics

4.1 Supply Distribution

Z-Coin has a fixed supply cap of 10,000,000 ZCN, distributed as follows:

Allocation	Tokens	Percentage	Vesting Schedule
Public Distribution	8,000,000 ZCN	80%	See breakdown below
Founders' Allocation	2,000,000 ZCN	20%	10% initial, quarterly over 1 year

The Public Distribution is further broken down as follows:

Public Allocation	Tokens	% of Total Supply	Notes
Direct Public Sale	4,000,000 ZCN	40%	Pre-sale and public launch
Mining Rewards Pool	4,000,000 ZCN	40%	Released according to mining schedule

The founders' tokens are subject to a vesting schedule to align long-term incentives:

Initial unlock: 200,000 ZCN (10% of founders' allocation)
Quarterly vesting: 450,000 ZCN per quarter over 1 year

Founders' Initial Unlock Allocation

The founders' initial unlock will be strategically allocated to cover critical project needs, including exchange listing fees, marketing campaigns, development team compensation, security audits, and operational infrastructure. Additionally, a portion will be reinvested into ongoing operational costs, continuous innovation, ecosystem expansion, and strategic partnerships to ensure Z-Coin's long-term growth, adoption, and sustainability.

4.2 Mining Rewards & Halving Schedule

Z-Coin implements a Bitcoin-inspired block reward mechanism with periodic halving to create increasing scarcity over time. The initial block reward is 50 ZCN, and this amount halves every 210,000 blocks (approximately every 4 years with 10-minute blocks).

Phase	Block Range	Reward per Block	Total ZCN Issued
Initial	0 - 210,000	50 ZCN	10,500,000 ZCN
First Halving	210,001 - 420,000	25 ZCN	5,250,000 ZCN
Second Halving	420,001 - 630,000	12.5 ZCN	2,625,000 ZCN
Third Halving	630,001 - 840,000	6.25 ZCN	1,312,500 ZCN
Fourth Halving	840,001 - 1,050,000	3.125 ZCN	656,250 ZCN
Continuing Halvings	1,050,001+	Continues halving	Approaches but never exceeds 4,000,000 ZCN

The mining reward function is implemented as follows:

function getBlockReward(uint256 blockHeight) public view returns (uint256) {
    uint256 halvings = blockHeight / blocksPerHalving;

    // Maximum number of halvings is 64 to prevent underflow
    if (halvings >= 64) {
        return 0;
    }

    // Calculate reward with halving applied
    uint256 reward = initialBlockReward;
    for (uint256 i = 0; i < halvings; i++) {
        reward = reward / 2;
    }

    return reward;
}
                

This halving schedule ensures that the full 4,000,000 ZCN allocated to mining will be distributed over many years, creating long-term scarcity and maintaining incentives for miners to secure the network.

4.3 Staking Rewards Structure

Z-Coin's staking rewards are designed to incentivize long-term holding and network participation. The base staking reward rate is 5% annually, with tier bonuses for higher staking amounts:

Black Card Tier	Staking Requirement	Base Annual Reward	Tier Bonus	Total Reward Rate
Silver	50+ ZCN for 12 months	5.0%	0.0%	5.0%
Gold	100+ ZCN for 12 months	5.0%	1.0%	6.0%
Diamond	250+ ZCN for 12 months	5.0%	2.0%	7.0%

Additional incentives are provided for stakers who commit to longer lock periods:

+0.5% for 18-month lock
+1.0% for 24-month lock
+1.5% for 36-month lock

Staking rewards are calculated continuously but are only claimable after the staking period has concluded, encouraging long-term commitment to the network.

4.4 Transaction Fee Structure

Z-Coin implements a tiered transaction fee structure, with lower fees for Black Card holders. The fee structure is as follows:

User Type	Base Fee	Charity Contribution	Total Fee
Standard User	0.50%	1.00%	1.50%
Silver Tier	0.30%	1.00%	1.30%
Gold Tier	0.20%	1.00%	1.20%
Diamond Tier	0.10%	1.00%	1.10%

The base fee component is used to reward miners and stakers, while the charity component is automatically directed to vetted charitable organizations.

For high-volume transactions, there are additional fee discounts based on transaction size:

5% discount for transactions over 100 ZCN
10% discount for transactions over 500 ZCN
15% discount for transactions over 1,000 ZCN

These fee discounts are applied to the base fee component only, not to the charity contribution.

5. Black Card System

5.1 Tier Requirements

The Z-Coin Black Card system provides a tiered approach to rewards and privileges based on staking amounts and duration. The requirements for each tier are as follows:

Tier	Staking Requirement	Minimum Duration	Card Type
Virtual (Base)	None	None	Digital Only
Silver	50+ ZCN	12 months	Metal Black Card
Gold	100+ ZCN	12 months	Gold-Accented Metal Card
Diamond	250+ ZCN	12 months	Titanium Black Card

5.2 Technical Implementation

The Black Card system is implemented through a combination of on-chain and off-chain components:

On-chain components:
- Staking contracts tracking amount and duration
- Tier eligibility verification
- Reward rate calculation
- Transaction fee adjustments
Off-chain components:
- Physical card issuance system
- KYC/AML verification
- Payment processing integration
- Merchant network management

The tier status is determined by the following smart contract function:

function updateBlackCardTier(address user) internal {
    uint256 staked = stakedBalance[user];
    uint256 stakingDuration = block.timestamp - stakingStartTime[user];
    bool qualifiesForMinimumDuration = stakingDuration >= STAKING_LOCK_PERIOD;

    // Determine tier based on amount and duration
    uint8 newTier = 0;

    if (qualifiesForMinimumDuration) {
        if (staked >= 250 * 10**18) {
            // Check if user qualifies for Founders Edition (first 500 Diamond tier)
            if (diamondTierCount < 500) {
                newTier = 4; // Founders Edition
                diamondTierCount++;
            } else {
                newTier = 3; // Diamond tier
            }
        } else if (staked >= 100 * 10**18) {
            newTier = 2; // Gold tier
        } else if (staked >= 50 * 10**18) {
            newTier = 1; // Silver tier
        }
    }

    blackCardTier[user] = newTier;
}
                

5.3 Security Features

The Z-Coin Black Card system incorporates advanced security features to protect users' funds and personal information:

Physical Cards:
- EMV chip technology for secure transactions
- NFC capability for contactless payments
- Dynamic CVV codes that change periodically
- Biometric authentication for high-value transactions
Digital Cards:
- End-to-end encryption for all communications
- Tokenization for enhanced payment security
- Multi-factor authentication for account access
- Real-time transaction monitoring and fraud detection

All Black Card operations are logged on the blockchain for transparency and auditability, with sensitive personal information stored off-chain in compliance with data protection regulations.

6. Charity Donation Mechanism

Z-Coin incorporates an automated charitable giving feature, allocating 1% of every transaction to vetted Christian charities. This mechanism is implemented directly in the smart contract to ensure transparency and immutability.

The donation process works as follows:

For each transaction, 1% of the transaction amount is automatically reserved
These funds are accumulated in a dedicated charity wallet
Periodically, the accumulated funds are distributed to approved charitable organizations
All donations are recorded on the blockchain for complete transparency
Detailed impact reports are published monthly, showing how the donations are being used

function _transfer(address from, address to, uint256 amount) internal override {
    // Calculate charity contribution (1% of transaction)
    uint256 charityAmount = amount * CHARITY_PERCENTAGE / 10000;
    uint256 netAmount = amount - charityAmount;

    // Transfer net amount to recipient
    super._transfer(from, to, netAmount);

    // Transfer charity contribution
    super._transfer(from, charityWallet, charityAmount);

    emit CharityDonation(from, charityAmount);
}
            

The Charity Fund is governed by a multi-signature wallet requiring approval from multiple authorized parties before funds can be disbursed. This ensures that donations are used as intended and provides an additional layer of security.

Future enhancements to the charity mechanism will include:

Community voting to select specific charitable causes
Direct integration with charity projects for real-time impact tracking
Custom NFTs that visualize the impact of each donor's contributions
Optional donation matching programs during special events

7. Security Measures

Z-Coin implements comprehensive security measures to protect the network, smart contracts, and user funds:

Smart Contract Security

Multiple independent security audits by leading blockchain security firms
Formal verification of critical contract components
Time-locked upgradability with multi-signature governance
Rate limiting for sensitive operations to prevent flash attacks
Emergency pause functionality for critical vulnerabilities

Network Security

Hybrid consensus requiring both computational resources and economic stake
Automatic difficulty adjustment to maintain hashrate distribution
51% attack resistance through dual validation requirements
Penalty mechanisms for malicious validators
Chain reorganization limits to prevent deep reorgs

User Security

Multi-factor authentication for wallet access
Optional time-locked transactions for large transfers
Hardware wallet support for cold storage
Social recovery options for lost keys
Security education resources for users

All security mechanisms are regularly reviewed and updated to address emerging threats and vulnerabilities.

8. Future Development Roadmap

The Z-Coin development roadmap outlines planned enhancements and features for the ecosystem:

Phase 1: Launch & Stabilization (Q1-Q2 2025)

Token public launch
Initial exchange listings
Core protocol stabilization
Basic staking and mining features

Phase 2: Ecosystem Expansion (Q3-Q4 2025)

Physical Black Card distribution
Merchant network development
Enhanced staking rewards system
Charity partnership expansion

Phase 3: Advanced Features (Q1-Q2 2026)

Launch of dedicated Z-Coin blockchain
Migration from ERC-20 token to native blockchain
Enhanced scalability and transaction throughput
Custom consensus optimizations
Development of Z-Coin blockchain explorer

3>

Layer 2 scaling solution integration
Cross-chain interoperability bridges
Decentralized governance implementation
NFT marketplace launch

Phase 4: Enterprise Solutions (Q3-Q4 2026)

Enterprise partnership program
High-value transaction infrastructure
Private transaction options for premium users
Advanced analytics and reporting tools

Phase 5: Global Expansion (2027 and beyond)

Regional payment networks
Regulatory compliance frameworks
Institutional-grade custody solutions
Advanced DeFi integrations

9. Conclusion

Z-Coin represents a significant innovation in the cryptocurrency space, combining the security features of Bitcoin with the utility and flexibility of modern smart contract platforms. By implementing a fixed supply cap, progressive mining difficulty, and hybrid consensus mechanism, Z-Coin establishes itself as a premium digital asset designed for long-term value preservation.

The Black Card system adds a unique real-world utility layer that bridges the gap between digital assets and physical payment systems, while the automatic charity donation feature aligns the protocol with meaningful social impact.

Through careful economic design and robust security measures, Z-Coin aims to provide a sustainable ecosystem that rewards participants at all levels while maintaining its position as a premium cryptocurrency for high-value transactions.

We invite developers, miners, stakers, and users to join the Z-Coin community and contribute to the continued evolution of this groundbreaking protocol.

10. References

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King, S. and Nadal, S. (2012). "PPCoin: Peer-to-Peer Crypto-Currency with Proof-of-Stake." https://peercoin.net/assets/paper/peercoin-paper.pdf
Dwork, C. and Naor, M. (1992). "Pricing via Processing or Combatting Junk Mail." Advances in Cryptology - CRYPTO '92.
Back, A. (2002). "Hashcash - A Denial of Service Counter-Measure." http://www.hashcash.org/papers/hashcash.pdf
Sompolinsky, Y. and Zohar, A. (2015). "Secure High-Rate Transaction Processing in Bitcoin." Financial Cryptography and Data Security.
Bonneau, J., Miller, A., Clark, J., Narayanan, A., Kroll, J.A., and Felten, E.W. (2015). "SoK: Research Perspectives and Challenges for Bitcoin and Cryptocurrencies." IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy.
Micali, S. (2016). "ALGORAND: The Efficient and Democratic Ledger." Algorand Whitepaper
Wood, G. (2014). "Ethereum: A Secure Decentralised Generalised Transaction Ledger." Ethereum Yellow Paper
Szabo, N. (1997). "Formalizing and Securing Relationships on Public Networks." First Monday, 2(9).

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